Royal Navy
Article by Sharpie
The Royal Navy was established along its current lines in the 1660's, and certain principles were laid down: All officers had to be good seamen, able to handle a ship in any circumstances. To this end, all aspiring officers went to sea as young men – most round about the age of 12 or so. They would be entered onto the ship's books as 'captain's servants' or 'first class volunteers' in order to learn the basics of seamanship. Once a lad reach the age of 16 or 17, he could be rated midshipman. This was equivalent to a petty officer, but while the petty officers were tough older seamen at the top of their promotional ladder, a midshipman was an apprentice officer at the beginning of his career.
Naval officers were consummate professionals: They were responsible for the ship and her crew. They had to prove that they could be trusted with a vessel in any circumstances that they might find themselves in... and it was possible for men from 'before the mast' to work their way up to the rank of master's mates, equal to midshipmen, who could also sit the examination for Lieutenant. Both Captain Cook and Captain Bligh had been master's mates and came to hold a commission.
Rank Structure
The crew of a ship fell into three distinct groups: The officers, the sailors and the Marines (Royal Marines after 1802)
Marines - were recruited in exactly the same way as the army. They and the officers were the only ones who had an actual uniform (a uniform was not authorised for the sailors before the mid 19th century). Their rank structure was entirely separate from the rest of the ship, with their own NCOs (non-commissioned officers - corporals and sergeants) and officers who reported directly to the ship's captain. How many Marines a ship carried was entirely dependent on the size of the ship, from 12 Marines with a Corporal and a Sergeant in a 16-gun brig, up to 130 men, with NCOs, two lieutenants and a captain aboard a first rate ship-of-the-line such as HMS Victory.
Landsmen - men who had no seamanship skills. They often got the dirty jobs.
Ordinary seamen - those who had been at sea for a year or so and could 'hand, reef and steer' - perform basic seamanship tasks. Able Seamen - the skilled professionals who could turn their hand to any task aboard ship.
Petty Officers - professional seamen responsible for a particular area aboard (captain of the foretop, yeoman of the powder room). These held their position by the captain's order and could be disrated - demoted back to seaman. (Able seaman, ordinary seaman and landsman were descriptions of skill, rather than being actual ranks)
Warrant officers - these were men who held a warrant from one Board or another. They included the bosun, the purser, the cook, the carpenter, the gunner. The captain had no power to disrate any of these. The most senior warrant officer aboard was the master, who was in charge of navigation. He was the only warrant officer entitled to live and dine with the commissioned officers in the gunroom of a frigate or the wardroom of a ship of the line
Midshipmen - officially ranked as petty officers, but were really officers in training. They started out as young boys of 11 or 12, going to sea as 'captain's servants' or, later 'volunteers first class', being rated as midshipmen after a year or two. When they were 21, they could be put forward for the examination for lieutenant. During their time at sea, they were expected to learn navigation as well as various seamanship skills and tasks, in preparation for the exam.
Examination for Lieutenant
When he reached the age of 21, a midshipman could be put forward for his examination for Lieutenant. This was a tough oral exam, in front of a panel of captains, and tested his seamanship, navigation and command skills. He would have to present his journals and certificates of service. Once he passed this examination, he was eligible to receive a commission to a ship as a Lieutenant.
If he failed, it was usually with a recommendation along the lines of 'six more months at sea' which meant that he had to serve a further six months as midshipman before he could sit his examination again. There was no limit to the number of times a midshipman could sit his exam, but if he did not pass by about the third attempt, he was unlikely to ever pass.
Passing the examination did not mean automatic promotion. This was dependant on being given a commission to a specific ship. The position of First Lieutenant, Second Lieutenant etc. depended only on the date each of the lieutenants had passed their examination. A Naval officer could not purchase a commission or a promotion; these were dependent, firstly on his passing his exam and secondly upon gaining interest in order to be given a commission into a ship.
Technically, a man was supposed to be 21 when he took his examination. in practice, however, this was often overlooked (although by 1811 the regulations were being tightened up) - the passing certificate merely recorded that (Name)...appeared to be of the age of 21 and has served at least six years at sea.
(It may be of interest to learn that even in the 21st Century the Royal Navy still expects its midshipmen to pass an oral exam before they can be considered for promotion.)
Getting a Commission
Gaining a berth as lieutenant depended very much on 'interest': whether the newly passed midshipman had a patron, an officer in a senior position who could either offer him a commission himself, or pull strings in order to get someone else to offer him a commission.
Commissioned officers did not hold a commission in the Royal Navy itself, despite holding rank. They were commissioned to a specific ship as Lieutenant, Commander or Captain, whichever the case may be.
The rank of 'master and commander' or later simply 'commander' was a bit of a strange one. It sat between Lieutenant and Captain, but was not a compulsory rank that every Captain had to hold. Commanders could only command vessels of a certain size: Brigs and sloops – two-masted vessels. Anything larger than this was a 'rated' vessel, and to be promoted to command a rated ship automatically meant that the officer concerned had 'been made post' – he was a full captain and only had to survive in order to, eventually, attain flag rank as an Admiral.
The man in charge of any Naval vessel, whatever its size, is addressed as 'Captain' although if he is not a post captain, this is only a courtesy title. When in council with other, senior, officers, he would be addressed by his actual rank.
Squadrons and Admirals
The Navy is divided into three squadrons. This is not an administrative thing but helps to show who is the most senior when there is more than one admiral on a station. The squadrons are Red, White and Blue, with the Blue being the most senior. An admiral is theoretically made a vice admiral of the red squadron, then of the white then of the blue, then promoted rear admiral of the red, and so forth. It is possible for admirals of different squadrons to serve on the same station.
A private ship - that is, a ship without an admiral aboard - will fly the ensign corresponding in colour to the flag of the admiral under whose command she is. For example, HMS Terpsichore on the Mediterranean station under Admiral Lord Exmouth would fly the Blue Ensign.
An admiral 'on the beach' (that is, without a command) is said to be an admiral of the Yellow, or to be yellowed. Once a man reaches the rank of post captain, he cannot command anything smaller than a sixth-rate frigate, and merely has to stay alive in order to make his way up the list of post captains in order to reach flag rank (admiral).
Rates of Ship
Sixth rates (frigates of 28 guns),
Fifth rates (frigates of 32-40 guns, later up to 48 guns),
Fourth rates (vessels of 60 to 70 guns, though these were hardly in use any more by 1805 as they were too slow to fight frigates and too small to be able to take part in fleet battles),
Third rates of 74-80 guns, the backbone of the Navy – most of the ships at Trafalgar were 74s
Second rates of 84-98 guns (such as Temeraire)
First rates of 100+ guns (such as Victory)
The bigger the ship, the higher an officer's pay – for example, the Captain of Victory of 100 guns would be paid more than the captain of the 32-gun frigate Eurayalus despite being nominally of the same rank. (This was not the case for petty officers, sailors or Marines, however, who received the same pay no matter the size of the ship they served in.)
Widely Accepted 'Facts'
Certain things that have been presented as 'fact' in fiction and some older, less-researched, textbooks. The most well-known of these are given here.
Pressgangs
All the services: Navy, Army and Marines (Royal Marines after 1802) faced manpower shortages throughout the war with France. It was easier for the Army and Marines to overcome these, despite the derision in which the Army was held at the time. Both of these services were manned entirely by volunteers, and recruiting parties went out regularly from each army regiment, and each of the three Royal Marine divisions. It was possible to train a man to march, fire his musket and learn his place in all the various manoeuvres within a matter of weeks.
This was not the case at all for the Royal Navy. It could easily take two years to produce one fully competent Able Seaman, thanks to the complexities of a sailing ship's rigging and the various manoeuvres a ship could be required to undertake depending on the weather and numerous other factors.
It was for this reason that the Navy came to use the press-gangs, although a far higher proportion of men than might be expected entered as volunteers. The press-gangs were legally limited to pressing men who 'used the sea' (mainly for the reason given above - a fisherman would already have a good sea-sense and would find it far easier to learn the ropes than a man who had very recently been a farm labourer). The best men were those taken from returning merchant ships, which were similarly rigged to Naval vessels. It was also illegal to press men from outward-bound merchant ships.
Life aboard a Royal Navy ship could be a lot easier, in many ways, than life in a merchantman. A Royal Navy 32-gun frigate had a crew complement of between 200 and 230, far greater than the numbers needed to work the sails. This was simply because a Naval ship was a floating gun battery and required large numbers of men to work the guns. A single 32-gun frigate, armed with 12-pounder cannons (that is, cannons firing a solid iron ball weighing 12 pounds) had far more fire power than Wellington's entire siege train at Badajoz in 1812 - and a frigate was a small ship when compared to the 100-gun HMS Victory, or even the more numerous 74-gun ships-of-the-line at Trafalgar, ships such as HMS Bellerophon, whose captain received Napoleon's surrender in 1815 after the Battle of Waterloo.
Flogging
To modern eyes, the punishments meted out in the Navy (and the Army) are harsh indeed - but it must be remembered that a sailor who was flogged was only lost temporarily, while he recovered, and on land, men, women and children were hanged for far less. Floggings were not handed down willy-nilly; a captain was limited (theoretically) to handing out a maximum of 12 lashes at a time, and even if they did award harsher punishments, such cases were rare, and were generally accepted by the men. Flogging was not one of the complaints that was at the root of the Great Mutinies in 1797, and a court-martial could (and very often did) award far higher punishments, up to and including the death penalty (depending on the crime and its severity.)
Generally, the only crime almost guaranteed to bring the death penalty was mutiny - although Article 29 required the death penalty for 'the unnatural and detestable sin of buggery and sodomy with man or beast', such an act had to have been witnessed to take place by two people and merely seeing two men lying with each other with their trousers down did not count, because the punishment was so harsh and the court martial board had no other option open to them than the death penalty if they returned a guilty verdict - several other articles allowed 'death, or such other punishment, as the offence by a court martial shall be judged to deserve'.
Rum
Water went bad when stored in wooden casks for a period of time and therefore various alcoholic drinks were allowed.
In English waters or on blockade of ports such as Brest, the issue was a gallon of small beer per man per day. (It went bad more quickly than wine or rum and so was reserved for waters near home, where it could be replenished relatively easily.)
In the Mediterranean, the issue was a pint of wine - usually a rough red wine known to the sailors as 'black strap'.
In American waters, the alcohol issue was a gallon of spruce beer a day, per man.
Rum was only issued in the West Indies, where it was produced as a by-product of sugar manufacture. Each man was issued half a pint of rum, diluted with three parts of water to one of rum, in two servings a day. Rum was the favoured drink because it was strongly flavoured and more strongly alcoholic, and replaced the issue of wine or small beer exclusively in the mid nineteenth century.
Most of my sources are from books, but I do have various links for those who are interested
There are several characters in The London Life who have connections with the Royal Navy.
Nathaniel Scarborough held the rank of Commander and has recently retired due to health issues.
Charles Banbury is a currently serving Commander (and a close friend of Nate's)
Demelza Quartermaine is married to an Admiral
Stephen Brydges is a full post-captain (who cannot command anything smaller than a frigate and who will eventually reach Admiral)
Bee Rosdew is the daughter of an admiral
Arthur Cartwright is a serving Royal Marine officer